The Impact of Traditional Bullying on Adolescent Mental Health: A Comprehensive Review

Traditional bullying refers to the physical, verbal or social aggression that takes place offline, often within school or community settings. Despite the increasing attention given to cyberbullying in recent years, traditional bullying remains a prevalent issue that can have profound consequences for the well-being of adolescents. This paper examines various aspects of traditional bullying, including its characteristics, psychological effects on victims, individual factors that contribute to resilience in the face of traditional bullying and intervention programs. Additionally, it explores the different psychological management strategies in mitigating the negative impact of traditional bullying. By synthesizing existing research findings, this paper offers insights into the multifaceted nature of traditional bullying and its implications for mental health, thereby contributing to the development of effective prevention and intervention programs.


Introduction
Bullying is generally defined as repeated acts of face-to-face aggression in which one or more people intentionally cause pain or harm through a dominance-submission relationship and through the law of silence (Garaigordobil et al., 2017;Casas et al., 2013;). Traditional bullying refers to aggressive and harmful behaviors that occur face-to-face or in physical settings, such as schools, neighborhoods or community spaces. Traditional bullying typically involves direct interactions between the bully and the victim, such as physical violence, verbal taunting or social exclusion. It is often visible to others in the immediate vicinity, allowing potential bystanders to witness and intervene and tends to be time-bound and location-specific, occurring primarily during school hours or within certain social contexts. It may involve a power imbalance, where the bully asserts dominance over the victim through physical strength, popularity or social status. On the other hand, cyberbullying refers to aggressive and harmful behaviors that occur through electronic devices or online platforms, such as social media, messaging apps or online forums. It utilizes digital technology for communication, including sending threatening messages, sharing humiliating content or spreading rumors online. Cyberbullying can be widespread and difficult to escape, as it can reach a large audience and persist over time due to the viral nature of online content. It can provide a sense of anonymity for the perpetrators, as they can hide behind online personas, fake accounts or pseudonyms. Cyberbullying incidents can have long-lasting effects due to the ability to capture and archive digital content, making it difficult to erase or forget and it can transcend physical boundaries and occur 24/7, potentially reaching victims even in the safety of their own homes .
Traditional bullying can manifest in various forms, each characterized by distinct methods and behaviors. Physical Bullying is a type of bullying involves direct physical aggression, such as hitting, kicking, pushing or any form of physical harm inflicted upon the victim. It includes acts that aim to cause pain, injury or discomfort. Verbal bullying encompasses the use of hurtful, insulting or threatening language towards the victim. It involves name-calling, teasing, taunting, mocking or using derogatory remarks to belittle or humiliate the target. Relational bullying also known as social bullying, it focuses on damaging the victim's social relationships and reputation. It includes spreading rumors, gossiping, excluding the victim from social groups or manipulating others to turn against the targeted individual. While traditional bullying primarily occurs face-to-face, it can also extend into the digital realm. In this case, it is often referred to as cyberbullying. It involves using electronic means such as social media, texting or online platforms to harass, intimidate or humiliate the victim (Olweus, 1993).

Characteristics of Traditional Bullying
Traditional bullying involves a power imbalance, with the bully having an advantage over the victim in terms of strength, popularity or social status. It consists of repeated acts of aggression, with the bully targeting the same victim over time. This type of bullying occurs in physical settings like schools, neighborhoods or community spaces where the bully and victim are in close proximity. It is often visible to others in the immediate vicinity, including peers or authority figures, allowing potential bystanders to witness the behavior. It involves physical intimidation tactics aimed at instilling fear in the victim, including aggressive body language, threatening gestures and invading personal space (Olweus, 1993). It can involve social exclusion, where the bully intentionally isolates the victim from social groups or activities. It can also include relational aggression, which involves spreading rumors, gossiping or manipulating relationships to harm the victim's social standing (Crick & Grotpeter, 1995).
The bully may publicly humiliate the victim, exert dominance or showcase physical strength to assert power (Espelage & Swearer, 2003). This type of bullying occurs in face-to-face interactions, intensifying the emotional impact on the victim (Olweus, 1993). Contextual factors such as social dynamics, cultural norms and peer group dynamics influence traditional bullying (Espelage & Swearer, 2003). The bully and victim are aware of each other's identities, which personalizes the bullying experience and may lead to retaliation or escalation (Smith et al., 2008).
Traditional bullying can inflict physical and emotional harm on the victim, leading to injuries, health problems, fear, anxiety, depression, low self-esteem and academic difficulties (Nansel et al., 2001). Gender differences exist in traditional bullying, with boys more likely to engage in overt physical aggression, while girls tend to utilize relational aggression and social exclusion tactics (Crick & Grotpeter, 1995;Vaillancourt et al., 2003). Social dynamics and peer influences can reinforce traditional
Victims of traditional bullying often experience negative impacts on their academic performance due to fear, stress and distraction, leading to difficulties in concentration, motivation and engagement in school-related activities (Juvonen et al., 2003). Traditional bullying is commonly observed within social hierarchies, where individuals with higher social status or perceived popularity maintain their position through bullying (Pellegrini & Long, 2002). It primarily occurs through direct, in-person confrontations, intensifying the bullying experience (Espelage et al., 2001). Cultural or societal norms can influence traditional bullying, shaping how it is perceived, reported and addressed within a community (Vaillancourt et al., 2008).
Traditional bullying often takes place in school settings, where students spend a significant portion of their time. Factors such as lack of supervision, ineffective policies and poor school climate can contribute to the prevalence and persistence of traditional bullying (Smith & Brain, 2000). Research also suggested that it can reinforce or perpetuate stereotypes based on factors such as race, ethnicity, gender, sexual orientation or disability. Individuals who deviate from societal norms or expectations may be targeted for bullying based on these characteristics .

Psychological Effects of Traditional Bullying
Numerous studies have linked traditional bullying to various mental health issues. Victims often experience heightened anxiety, depression and loneliness compared to non-bullied peers (Kowalski et al., 2014;Modecki et al., 2014). Low self-esteem, reduced self-worth and feelings of hopelessness are common among victims (Olweus, 2013). The persistent and chronic nature of bullying exacerbates these psychological difficulties, leading to long-lasting emotional distress. Bullying also significantly impacts academic performance, with bullied students experiencing lower achievement, decreased motivation and impaired concentration (Zhu et al., 2019). Traditional bullying can have far-reaching effects on victims' social relationships. It isolates them from peers, making it challenging to form and maintain friendships (Hawker & Boulton, 2000). Social withdrawal, anxiety and difficulties in establishing trusting relationships are common consequences . These challenges can persist into adulthood, affecting individuals' ability to form healthy social connections and engage in satisfying interpersonal interactions. The psychological effects of traditional bullying can extend into adulthood, increasing the risk of mental health problems such as anxiety disorders, depression and suicidal ideation (Takizawa et al., 2014).
Traditional bullying not only has psychological effects but can also adversely affect victims' physical health. Those who experience bullying are more likely to report physical health problems like headaches, stomachaches and sleep disturbances (Gini & Pozzoli, 2013). The chronic stress associated with bullying can negatively impact the immune system and overall physical well-being. Bullying can also impede cognitive functioning, leading to difficulties in attention, concentration and memory (Lereya et al., 2015). Victims may experience symptoms similar to post-traumatic stress disorder (PTSD), such as intrusive thoughts, nightmares, hypervigilance and emotional reactivity (Klomek et al., 2013). Bullying is strongly associated with an increased risk of suicidal ideation and behaviors (Kim et al., 2019;Klomek et al., 2015). The gender differences in the psychological effects of traditional bullying reveal that girls may experience internalizing symptoms like depression and anxiety, while boys may exhibit more externalizing behaviors such as aggression (Espelage & Swearer, 2003). Tailoring interventions and support strategies to address these gender-specific patterns is crucial.
While traditional bullying can have significant negative consequences, not all victims experience long-lasting psychological effects. Certain factors act as protective buffers, including supportive relationships with parents, peers and teachers, as well as a sense of belonging and positive self-esteem, which mitigate the psychological impact of bullying (Bowes et al., 2013; Ttofi et al., 2011). Identifying and fostering these protective factors can contribute to effective intervention strategies.
It's important to recognize that the psychological effects of traditional bullying extend beyond the victims. Bystanders who witness bullying incidents can also experience negative psychological consequences, such as guilt, shame and distress .
In the digital age, cyberbullying has emerged as a prevalent form of aggression, intensifying the psychological effects on victims. Cyberbullying combines the harmful aspects of traditional bullying with challenges like anonymity, widespread dissemination, and 24/7 access. Victims of cyberbullying can experience similar psychological consequences as those subjected to traditional bullying, including depression, anxiety and social isolation .
For some individuals, traditional bullying can have a highly traumatic impact, leading to symptoms of trauma such as flashbacks, nightmares and avoidance behaviors (Bottino et al., 2019). However, it is important to recognize that victims of bullying can also experience post-traumatic growth, which involves positive psychological changes such as increased resilience, self-confidence and empathy towards others (Tedeschi & Calhoun, 2004). Understanding both the negative and potential positive outcomes of bullying is crucial for comprehensive support and intervention strategies.
The psychological effects of traditional bullying can be particularly severe for individuals from marginalized groups. Studies have indicated that racial and ethnic minorities, LGBTQ+ individuals, and individuals with disabilities may experience heightened levels of bullying victimization (Espelage et al., 2012). The intersectionality of identities can intensify the psychological impact as victims face not only bullying but also discrimination, prejudice and social exclusion. Recognizing the unique challenges faced by marginalized groups is vital in providing targeted support and fostering inclusive environments. Supportive and nurturing family relationships can serve as a protective factor for victims, providing emotional validation, guidance and coping strategies (Lereya & Wolke, 2013). On the other hand, negative family dynamics, such as parental neglect or abuse, can intensify the psychological impact of bullying and contribute to long-term mental health issues. Recognizing the importance of family support and involving parents in intervention efforts is essential for comprehensive support for victims.
Individuals who experience traditional bullying may develop coping mechanisms to manage the psychological distress. Adaptive strategies like seeking social support, engaging in hobbies, and developing self-confidence can help victims navigate and overcome the negative effects of bullying (Espelage et al., 2018). Understanding and promoting effective coping mechanisms can empower victims and facilitate their psychological recovery. Difficulties with concentration, decreased motivation and reduced engagement in school activities are common among victims (Zhu et al., 2019). These factors can result in lower academic achievement, increased absenteeism and a higher risk of dropout.
The psychological effects of traditional bullying are closely tied to broader systemic factors and the prevailing bullying culture within a specific context. Schools and communities that tolerate or perpetuate a culture of aggression and bullying contribute to the psychological harm experienced by victims. It is essential to address systemic issues, promote empathy and respect and foster a culture of kindness and inclusion to effectively combat traditional bullying (Smith et al., 2019).

Individual factors that contribute to resilience in the face of traditional bullying
Individual factors play a crucial role in promoting resilience in the face of traditional bullying. Higher levels of self-esteem can buffer the negative impact of bullying, as individuals with a positive selfperception and strong sense of self-worth exhibit greater resilience (Rosenberg et al., 2013). Strong social skills, such as effective communication, assertiveness and problem-solving abilities, contribute to resilience by enabling individuals to navigate social interactions, seek support and address bullying incidents (Gini et al., 2008). The ability to regulate and manage emotions is also associated with resilience. Developing emotional regulation skills helps individuals maintain emotional well-being, cope with negative emotions and respond constructively to bullying (Bannink et al., 2014). Furthermore, individuals with an internal locus of control, believing in their own control over their lives and outcomes, tend to exhibit resilience by fostering a belief in their ability to cope with and overcome bullying experiences (Zych et al., 2018).
Effective problem-solving skills play a crucial role in enhancing an individual's resilience when facing traditional bullying. The ability to identify and implement strategies to address bullying situations empowers individuals and increases their capacity to navigate and overcome the challenges they encounter (Diaz-Aguado et al., 2013). Positive coping mechanisms, which are adaptive strategies individuals employ to deal with stressful situations like traditional bullying, also contribute to resilience. These mechanisms include seeking social support, engaging in problem-solving, using positive reframing, practicing self-care and participating in activities that promote well-being (Skinner & Zimmer-Gembeck, 2016). Utilizing positive coping mechanisms has been found to be associated with

Intervention programs for traditional bullying
Several intervention programs have been developed to prevent and address traditional bullying in schools. These programs employ various strategies to raise awareness, provide support and create safe and respectful school environments. The Olweus Bullying Prevention Program is a well-known and widely implemented intervention that focuses on changing the school culture. It incorporates schoolwide components, classroom-level activities and individual interventions. The program aims to increase adult supervision, enhance empathy and prosocial behavior and establish clear rules and consequences for bullying (Olweus, 1993).
The KiVa Antibullying Program, developed in Finland, is an evidence-based program that targets bullying at multiple levels -individual, classroom and school. It includes strategies to improve empathy, promote positive bystander behavior and provide support for both victims and bullies. The program utilizes online tools, teacher training and age-specific intervention modules .
Steps to Respect is a school-based bullying prevention program designed for elementary school-aged children. It focuses on developing social-emotional skills, teaching problem-solving strategies and fostering positive peer relationships. The program includes classroom lessons, teacher training and parent materials to provide a comprehensive approach to bullying prevention (DeRosier, 2004).
The Friendly Schools and Families Program, an Australian initiative, aims to prevent bullying through a whole-school approach. It emphasizes the importance of positive relationships, respectful communication and addressing bullying behaviors. The program incorporates teacher training, student workshops and parent involvement to create a supportive and inclusive school environment (Rigby et al., 2009). No Bully is an evidence-based program that aims to create bully-free schools through comprehensive support for students, teachers and parents. The program takes a systemic approach, offering teacher training, student empowerment and parent education. It emphasizes prevention, early intervention and the cultivation of a culture of empathy and respect (Hazelden Publishing, n.d.).
Steps to Respect (STARS) is a middle school-based bullying prevention program that raises awareness about bullying, teaches positive communication and problem-solving skills and promotes a positive school climate. The program incorporates classroom lessons, role-playing activities and interactive learning to address bullying behaviors (National Center for School Engagement, n.d.). The Bullying Prevention Program (BPP) is an evidence-based intervention targeting elementary and middle school students. It aims to reduce bullying by teaching empathy, assertiveness, conflict resolution skills and fostering positive peer relationships. The program involves classroom activities, teacher training and engagement of parents and school staff (Cornell University, n.d.).
Restorative Practices is an approach to addressing bullying that focuses on repairing harm and restoring relationships through dialogue, reflection and accountability. It aims to foster empathy, understanding and positive change within the school community (International Institute for Restorative Practices, n.d.). The Steps Towards Respect and Empowerment (STRE) Program is a comprehensive intervention targeting traditional bullying. It promotes empathy, assertiveness and positive social interactions among students through classroom lessons, interactive activities and skill-building exercises (Nickerson, 2019). The Second Step program is a research-based social-emotional learning curriculum designed to prevent bullying and promote prosocial behaviors among elementary and middle school students. It teaches empathy, emotion management, problem-solving and communication skills through engaging lessons and activities (Committee for Children, n.d.).
Steps for Respect is a school-based intervention program for elementary and middle school students. It focuses on building respectful relationships, fostering positive communication and developing conflict resolution skills. The program utilizes role-playing, group discussions and teacher-led activities to address bullying behaviors (San Francisco Unified School District, n.d.). Be Strong is an anti-bullying and mental health organization that offers a comprehensive program to empower individuals and create supportive environments. Their program includes school assemblies, mentorship programs, digital resources and resilience-building activities to address bullying and promote mental well-being (Be Strong, n.d.). To effectively address the psychological effects of traditional bullying, intervention efforts should adopt a holistic approach. This includes implementing prevention programs, creating safe and inclusive school environments, providing mental health support for victims, educating students, parents and educators about the consequences of bullying and promoting social-emotional learning (Smith, Salmivalli & Cowie., 2021). By combining these strategies, we can address the immediate and long-term psychological well-being of victims and create a culture that rejects bullying behavior.

Psychological management of Traditional bullying victim
Therapy for traditional bullying typically focuses on supporting the victims and helping them heal from the emotional distress caused by bullying experiences. Cognitive-Behavioral Therapy (CBT) is a widely used therapeutic approach that focuses on identifying and modifying negative thoughts, beliefs, and behaviors. It can help victims challenge distorted beliefs about themselves and develop healthier coping strategies to manage the psychological effects of bullying (Rigby, 2008;McMahon et al., 2017;Wong et al., 2018). Providing a safe and supportive environment for victims to express their feelings, validate their experiences and receive emotional support is essential. Supportive counseling can help victims develop coping skills, enhance self-esteem and regain a sense of control over their lives (Holt et al., 2015). Art therapy involves using creative expression as a means of communication and healing. Through various art mediums, victims can explore their emotions, gain insight into their experiences and find new ways to cope with the psychological impact of bullying (Malchiodi, 2012). Group therapy provides victims with an opportunity to connect with peers who have experienced similar bullying situations. In a supportive group setting, victims can share their experiences, gain validation, receive feedback and learn coping skills from others (Menesini et  is an evidence-based therapy that incorporates elements of cognitive-behavioral and mindfulness approaches. It is often used to address emotional dysregulation and difficulties in interpersonal relationships, which can be consequences of bullying victimization. DBT helps individuals develop emotion regulation skills, distress tolerance, interpersonal effectiveness and mindfulness practices to enhance overall well-being (Slee et al., 2013;Swales et al., 2000). Eye Movement Desensitization and Reprocessing (EMDR)is a psychotherapy approach that has been effective in treating trauma-related symptoms. It involves bilateral stimulation (such as eye movements) while focusing on distressing memories or experiences. EMDR has shown promise in reducing the emotional impact of traumatic events related to bullying, promoting healing and fostering adaptive coping (Diehle et al., 2015;Shapiro, 2018). Narrative Exposure Therapy (NET) is a trauma-focused therapy approach that involves systematically recounting traumatic experiences and integrating them into a coherent narrative. It aims to reduce the distress associated with traumatic memories and foster posttraumatic growth. NET has been found effective in reducing trauma symptoms and improving psychological well-being in individuals who have experienced bullying-related trauma (Robjant et  Solution-Focused Brief Therapy (SFBT) is a goal-oriented, future-focused therapy that aims to help individuals identify and amplify their strengths and resources. By exploring preferred futures and building solutions rather than solely focusing on problems, SFBT can empower individuals who have experienced bullying to develop resilience, enhance coping skills and create positive changes in their lives (Franklin et al., 2012;Gingerich & Eisengart, 2000). Social skills training programs can be effective in addressing the social difficulties and interpersonal challenges that can arise from bullying experiences. These programs focus on teaching individuals assertiveness, communication skills, problem-solving abilities and conflict resolution strategies. By enhancing social competence, individuals can develop more positive relationships and cope effectively with bullying situations (Merrell & Gueldner, 2010;Orpinas & Horne, 2006). Family therapy can play a vital role in addressing the psychological effects of bullying, particularly when family dynamics contribute to or are affected by the bullying experiences. Family therapy aims to improve communication, strengthen relationships and provide support for both the victim and their family members. It can help in building resilience, fostering understanding and promoting a supportive environment for recovery Shemesh et al., 2012).
School-based interventions are designed to address bullying at the systemic level by creating supportive environments and promoting positive peer relationships. These interventions often include a combination of educational programs, social-emotional learning curricula, peer mediation and wholeschool policies. School-based interventions have shown effectiveness in reducing bullying behaviors and improving the overall school climate . Parents play a crucial role in supporting children who have experienced bullying. Parent training programs can provide guidance on effective communication, problem-solving skills and strategies for advocating for their child. By empowering parents, these programs can enhance their ability to provide emotional support, address the impact of bullying and work collaboratively with schools to create safer environments (Sanders & Kirby, 2014;Weiss et al., 2016). Resilience-Building Interventions may involve promoting positive self-beliefs, fostering social connections, teaching stress management techniques and encouraging the development of healthy coping strategies. Resilience-building interventions can help individuals build protective factors and enhance their ability to navigate the psychological effects of bullying (Hjemdal et al., 2011;Ungar, 2013). Online and Digital interventions can include online support groups, virtual counseling, smartphone applications and interactive platforms that provide information and resources to individuals affected by bullying. Online interventions offer convenience, accessibility and anonymity, making them suitable for those who may be hesitant to seek traditional face-to-face therapy (Hutson et al., 2018;Spears et al., 2015).
Expressive therapies, such as art therapy, music therapy and play therapy, provide individuals with alternative ways to express and process their emotions related to bullying experiences. These creative modalities can help individuals explore their feelings, gain insight and develop coping strategies. Expressive therapies offer a non-verbal and often non-threatening approach to healing and can be particularly beneficial for children and adolescents (Malchiodi, 2012;Stuckey & Nobel, 2010). Low self-esteem and self-worth are common consequences of bullying. Self-esteem and Selfcompassion Building Therapy techniques that focus on building self-esteem and fostering selfcompassion can be helpful. These techniques may involve identifying and challenging negative selfbeliefs, promoting self-acceptance and self-care and cultivating a positive self-image. By strengthening self-esteem and self-compassion, individuals can develop resilience and better navigate the psychological impact of bullying (Neff, 2011;Neff & Germer, 2013). Building and strengthening social support networks can be vital in the recovery process. Therapy techniques may involve exploring and developing supportive relationships with family, friends, peers and community resources. This may include enhancing social skills, improving communication and identifying healthy support systems. By fostering positive connections, individuals can receive validation, understanding and practical assistance in coping with the effects of bullying (Parker & Asher, 1993;Proctor et al., 2015).
Mind-body interventions focus on the connection between the mind and body and can help individuals regulate their emotions and reduce stress. Techniques such as relaxation exercises, deep breathing, meditation, yoga and progressive muscle relaxation can promote relaxation, mindfulness and overall well-being. These interventions can help individuals manage anxiety, improve emotional regulation and counteract the physiological effects of bullying (Keng et al., 2011;Sharma et al., 2020). Psychoeducation involves providing individuals and their families with information about bullying, its effects and available resources. This knowledge empowers individuals to better understand their experiences, recognize the impact of bullying and develop effective coping strategies. Psychotherapeutic support involves offering a safe and non-judgmental space for individuals to process their emotions, validate their experiences and receive guidance from a trained professional (Bauman, 2018; Rigby, 2012).

Discussion and Conclusion
Both traditional bullying and cyberbullying can cause harmful impacts on individuals, encompassing psychological effects such as heightened anxiety, depression and stress. It also leads to emotional consequences, including increased feelings of sadness, loneliness and social isolation. Socially, bullying disrupts relationships and impedes social development, making it difficult for victims to form positive connections with peers, resulting in social exclusion and a sense of alienation (Hinduja, S., & Patchin, J. W., 2018). Resilience factors such as social support, self-esteem, problem-solving skills, digital literacy and emotional regulation play a critical role in mitigating the negative effects of cyberbullying. Strengthening these factors can enhance individuals' ability to cope with cyberbullying incidents and foster their resilience in the face of online adversity (Hinduja, S., & Patchin, J. W., 2018).
School-based interventions such as the whole-school approach, social-emotional learning programs, peer mediation and restorative practices have shown promise in preventing and addressing traditional bullying. These interventions prioritize creating a safe and supportive school environment, fostering healthy relationships and equipping students with the necessary skills to prevent and respond to bullying incidents effectively (Olweus, D., 1993). Intervention programs for traditional bullying aim to prevent and address bullying behaviors through various strategies, including changing school culture, promoting empathy, providing support and establishing clear rules. Notable programs include Olweus Bullying Prevention Program, KiVa Antibullying Program, Steps to Respect, Friendly Schools and Families Program, No Bully, Restorative Practices, Steps Towards Respect and Empowerment (STRE) Program, Second Step program, Steps for Respect and Be Strong, all focusing on creating safe environments, supporting victims and promoting social-emotional learning (Olweus, 1993;DeRosier., 2004).
Psychological management of traditional bullying victims typically involves therapy approaches such as cognitive-Behavioral Therapy, supportive counseling, art therapy, group therapy, traumafocused cognitive-behavioral therapy, dialectical behavior therapy, eye movement desensitization and reprocessing, narrative exposure therapy, acceptance and commitment therapy, mindfulness-based interventions, solution-focused brief therapy, social skills training programs, family therapy, schoolbased interventions, parent training programs, resilience-building interventions, online and digital interventions, expressive therapies, self-esteem and self-compassion building techniques, building social support networks, mind-body interventions, psychoeducation and psychotherapeutic support (

Acknowledgement
The author appreciates all those who helped to facilitate the research process.

Conflict of Interests:
The author declared no conflict of interests.

Implications
To support individuals dealing with bullying, it is important to build strong support networks and establish social support systems in schools and communities. This can aid in coping with and recovering from bullying experiences. Additionally, promoting self-esteem and self-efficacy can contribute to resilience when facing bullying. Bullying prevention programs should include the development of problem-solving skills, digital literacy and emotional regulation abilities to empower individuals with the tools needed to address and manage bullying incidents. Schools should adopt comprehensive approaches that involve all stakeholders, employ various strategies and foster positive relationships and a culture of respect. Continued research and evaluation of interventions are crucial to identify effective practices, adapt interventions to diverse populations and cultural contexts and enhance the overall effectiveness of bullying prevention efforts.

Recommendations for future research and practice
To advance bullying prevention, research should focus on longitudinal studies to track the long-term effects of interventions. Intersectionality of bullying experiences and cultural variations should be