A Comprehensive Review of Error-Related Potentials in Brain--Computer Interfaces and Brain--AI Interaction: Trends, Challenges, and Future Directions

Sathvik Reddy; Prashant P Patavardhan; Jathin M; Srujan T M

doi:10.36948/ijfmr.2025.v07i06.62921

A Comprehensive Review of Error-Related Potentials in Brain--Computer Interfaces and Brain--AI Interaction: Trends, Challenges, and Future Directions

Author(s)	Mr. Sathvik Reddy, Prof. Dr. Prashant P Patavardhan, Jathin M, Srujan T M
Country	India
Abstract	Error-related potentials (ErrPs) are event-related EEG responses elicited when a person detects a mismatch between an intended and an observed outcome. Over the past two decades, ErrPs have emerged as a key neural marker for improving the reliability and usability of brain--computer interfaces (BCIs). This review summarizes recent advances in ErrP-based BCIs, with a focus on multitask motor control, subject-independent classification, and emerging brain--AI interaction paradigms. We first outline the neurophysiological basis of ErrPs and classical applications for error correction in BCI spellers and motor-imagery systems. We then discuss recent work on multitasking sensorimotor control, robust classification methods, and generic classifiers that can generalize across users and recording conditions. A special emphasis is placed on frameworks that use ErrPs as implicit feedback to adapt artificial intelligence (AI) agents, particularly large language models (LLMs), in closed loops. In these systems, ErrPs serve as feedback about agreement or disagreement with the AI's output, enabling the construction of subject-specific AI behaviour. Across the surveyed studies, we identify common challenges such as low single-trial accuracy, inter- and intra-subject variability, practical deployment constraints, and a strong dependence on attention and task context. We conclude by outlining promising directions for improving robustness, personalization, and scalability of ErrP-based BCIs and brain--AI systems.
Keywords	Error-related potentials , Brain–computer interface , EEG , Neural error monitoring , Subject-independent classification , Brain–AI interaction , Large language models
Field	Computer > Artificial Intelligence / Simulation / Virtual Reality
Published In	Volume 7, Issue 6, November-December 2025
Published On	2025-12-14
DOI	https://doi.org/10.36948/ijfmr.2025.v07i06.62921

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A Comprehensive Review of Error-Related Potentials in Brain--Computer Interfaces and Brain--AI Interaction: Trends, Challenges, and Future Directions

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